An open authorization standard enabling users to grant applications limited access to their accounts on other services without sharing passwords. OAuth tokens provide delegated access while maintaining credential security.

A passive system entity containing or receiving information, such as files, databases, or network resources. Objects are targets of access control policies that define which subjects can interact with them.

A sequence of eight binary bits forming a single byte of data. Octets represent the fundamental unit of digital information storage and transmission across networks and computing systems.

A temporary authentication code valid for a single login session or transaction. OTPs defeat credential theft because stolen codes become useless after expiration or use, typically within 30-60 seconds.

Irreversible cryptographic transformation converting plaintext to ciphertext that cannot be decrypted even with the encryption key. One-way encryption protects stored passwords by making original values unrecoverable.

A mathematical operation easily computed in one direction but computationally infeasible to reverse without exhaustive brute-force attempts. One-way functions form the basis of cryptographic hashing and digital signatures.

Anonymous communication technique encrypting data in multiple layers and routing through a series of network nodes. Each node removes one encryption layer, preventing any single point from knowing both source and destination.

A link-state routing protocol used within autonomous systems to calculate optimal network paths. OSPF routers maintain complete topology databases and recalculate routes quickly when network changes occur.

Controls and configurations protecting operating system confidentiality, integrity, and availability. OS security includes patch management, access controls, secure configurations, and monitoring for unauthorized modifications.

Hardware and software controlling industrial processes like manufacturing, energy production, and critical infrastructure. OT security requires protecting operational continuity while defending against cyber threats targeting physical systems.

A seven-layer reference model describing how data moves through networks from application software to physical transmission media. OSI provides standardized framework for understanding network communications and troubleshooting connectivity issues.

The seven functional layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer handles specific communication functions, enabling interoperability between different network technologies.

Verification using a separate communication channel from the primary access method, such as SMS codes sent to mobile phones during web logins. Out-of-band authentication prevents single-point compromise.

Security risks from external individuals or groups lacking authorized access to organizational assets. Outside threats include cybercriminals, hacktivists, and nation-state actors attempting unauthorized system penetration.

Exploitation technique sending more data to a buffer than it can hold, causing excess data to overwrite adjacent memory locations with malicious code. Buffer overflows enable arbitrary code execution and system compromise.

System degradation or failure resulting from excessive demand exceeding performance capabilities. Overload can result from legitimate traffic spikes, denial-of-service attacks, or insufficient resource allocation.

Wireless delivery of software, firmware, or configuration updates to mobile devices and IoT systems. OTA updates enable remote patching but require secure authentication to prevent attackers from distributing malicious updates.