A state-sponsored or well-funded threat actor that infiltrates networks and remains undetected for extended periods. APTs use sophisticated techniques to pursue specific political or economic objectives.

An individual or group that carries out or plans malicious activities against information systems. Adversaries range from opportunistic hackers to organized cybercrime groups and nation-state actors.

Physical isolation of a computer or network from all other systems and the internet. Air gaps protect critical infrastructure by eliminating remote access, though they remain vulnerable to insider threats.

A notification generated by security tools indicating potential threats, policy violations, or suspicious activity. Effective alerts prioritize context and severity to reduce noise and improve response times.

The desensitization that occurs when security teams face excessive false positives or low-priority notifications. Alert fatigue leads to delayed responses and missed threats as analysts become overwhelmed.

Software that detects and removes known malware by comparing files against signature databases. Traditional AV protects against common threats but struggles with zero-day attacks and advanced evasion techniques.

Computer systems designed to perform tasks requiring human-like decision-making and pattern recognition. In security, AI analyzes vast datasets to detect anomalies, though it requires human oversight for accuracy.

All points where unauthorized users could potentially access a system. This includes exposed ports, applications, endpoints, and user credentials. Reducing attack surface limits opportunities for compromise.

An individual or group attempting to exploit vulnerabilities for malicious purposes. Attackers vary in motivation and sophistication, from script kiddies testing tools to organized ransomware operations.

The process of verifying a user's or device's claimed identity before granting system access. Authentication methods include passwords, biometrics, tokens, and certificates, often combined for stronger security.

Continuous observation of user and system activities compared against established baselines and security policies. Behavior monitoring detects anomalies that signature-based tools miss, identifying insider threats and compromised accounts through deviation patterns.

A list of blocked entities such as IP addresses, domains, applications, or email addresses. Blacklists prevent known threats from accessing systems but require constant updates and cannot stop unknown threats.

Cybersecurity professionals who defend systems against simulated attacks during security exercises. Blue teams test detection capabilities, response procedures, and defensive controls to identify gaps before real attackers exploit them.

A compromised computer remotely controlled by an attacker to perform malicious tasks. Individual bots execute commands from a central server, often used for distributed denial-of-service attacks, spam campaigns, or credential theft.

The attacker controlling a botnet through command-and-control infrastructure. Bot masters direct compromised machines to launch coordinated attacks, distribute malware, or steal data while masking their identity through proxy networks.

A network of infected computers controlled as a coordinated group by a single attacker. Botnets provide scalable attack infrastructure for DDoS operations, cryptocurrency mining, spam distribution, and large-scale data theft.

An unintentional flaw or error in software code that causes unexpected behavior. Bugs range from minor display issues to critical security vulnerabilities that attackers exploit before developers issue patches.

Development practices that integrate security controls throughout the software lifecycle rather than adding them after deployment. This approach reduces vulnerabilities through secure coding standards, threat modeling, and regular security testing.

A targeted phishing attack where criminals impersonate executives to authorize fraudulent wire transfers. BEC exploits trusted relationships and bypasses technical controls, causing billions in annual losses through social engineering tactics.

The executive responsible for an organization's information security strategy, policies, and risk management. CISOs bridge technical security operations and business leadership, ensuring security initiatives align with organizational objectives and compliance requirements.

The executive overseeing all aspects of physical and digital security within an organization. CSOs manage security teams, establish protocols, and coordinate incident response, often encompassing both cybersecurity and physical protection responsibilities.

The foundational security principles of Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This framework guides security decisions by ensuring data remains private, accurate, and accessible to authorized users while protected from unauthorized access or tampering.

The practice of securing communications and data through mathematical algorithms that encrypt information into unreadable formats. Cryptography protects sensitive data in transit and at rest, requiring decryption keys to restore original content.

A deliberate attempt to compromise, disrupt, or destroy information systems, networks, or data. Attacks range from automated malware campaigns to sophisticated operations targeting specific organizations for espionage, extortion, or sabotage.

Any event that compromises the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of information systems or data. Incidents include successful attacks, policy violations, system failures, and accidental breaches, regardless of malicious intent.

A simulated network environment where security teams practice responding to attacks without risking production systems. Cyber ranges replicate real-world scenarios, allowing professionals to test defenses and refine incident response procedures.

The practice of protecting networks, systems, and data from digital attacks, unauthorized access, and damage. Cybersecurity combines technology, processes, and policies to defend against threats while maintaining business operations and compliance.

Understanding your network architecture, asset inventory, current threats, and security posture in real-time. Situational awareness enables proactive threat detection and rapid response by maintaining visibility across the entire IT environment.

Copies of data stored separately from primary systems to enable recovery after attacks, failures, or accidental deletion. Regular backups minimize downtime and data loss, forming a critical component of disaster recovery planning.

Unauthorized access, disclosure, or theft of sensitive information by external attackers or malicious insiders. Breaches expose customer data, intellectual property, or credentials, resulting in financial losses, regulatory penalties, and reputational damage.

Assurance that data remains accurate, complete, and unaltered except through authorized changes. Integrity controls detect tampering, corruption, or unauthorized modifications, maintaining trust in information used for business decisions and compliance reporting.

The proper handling, processing, and storage of personal information according to legal requirements and individual expectations. Privacy protections give users control over how organizations collect, use, share, and retain their data.

An attack that floods a system with traffic or requests to exhaust resources and prevent legitimate users from accessing services. DoS attacks disrupt operations without stealing data or breaching systems.

The collection, preservation, and analysis of digital evidence from computers, networks, and storage devices following security incidents. Forensics teams reconstruct attack timelines, identify perpetrators, and support legal proceedings.

A DoS attack launched simultaneously from multiple compromised systems, generating massive traffic volumes that overwhelm targets. DDoS attacks are harder to block because traffic originates from numerous sources across different networks.

The internet protocol that translates human-readable domain names into numerical IP addresses computers use to communicate. DNS functions like a phonebook, directing traffic to correct servers when users enter website URLs.

A security control that blocks access to malicious or unauthorized domains by filtering DNS queries. DNS firewalls prevent users from reaching phishing sites, malware distribution points, and command-and-control servers.

An attack that corrupts DNS records to redirect users from legitimate websites to malicious copies controlled by attackers. DNS poisoning enables credential theft, malware distribution, and man-in-the-middle attacks.

The malicious publication of private personal information such as home addresses, phone numbers, or financial details. Doxxing weaponizes personal data to harass, intimidate, or endanger targeted individuals.

A digital mark associated with an electronic document to verify the signer's identity and intent. Electronic signatures provide legal validity for contracts and approvals without requiring physical paperwork or in-person presence.

The process of converting readable plaintext into encrypted ciphertext using cryptographic algorithms. Enciphering protects data confidentiality by making information unreadable without the corresponding decryption key.

Converting data from one format to another using a publicly known scheme, distinct from encryption which uses secret keys. Encoding like Base64 transforms data for transmission compatibility but provides no security protection.

Converting readable data into scrambled ciphertext that requires a decryption key to restore. Encryption protects sensitive information in transit across networks and at rest in storage, preventing unauthorized access to confidential data.

Security software installed on endpoints that monitors device behavior, detects threats, and enables rapid response to incidents. EDR provides visibility into endpoint activity but lacks coverage for network traffic and cloud services.

A structured approach to identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks across an entire organization. Risk management balances security investments against potential threats, ensuring controls align with business objectives and compliance requirements.

A security professional authorized to test systems by simulating attacks to identify vulnerabilities before malicious actors exploit them. Ethical hackers follow defined rules of engagement and report findings to improve defenses.

Any observable occurrence within an information system, such as user logins, file modifications, or network connections. Security tools analyze events to establish baselines and detect anomalies indicating potential incidents.

Unauthorized removal of data from an organization's network to attacker-controlled systems. Exfiltration occurs after initial compromise, often using encrypted channels to avoid detection while stealing intellectual property or customer records.

A technique or code that takes advantage of a software vulnerability to compromise systems. Exploits range from publicly available scripts targeting known flaws to zero-day attacks leveraging undisclosed vulnerabilities.

The examination of security vulnerabilities to determine how attackers could leverage them for system compromise. Analysis prioritizes remediation efforts based on exploit difficulty, potential impact, and attacker capabilities.

The condition where systems, data, or credentials remain accessible to unauthorized parties due to misconfigurations, weak controls, or unpatched vulnerabilities. Reducing exposure limits opportunities for attackers to gain initial access.

Security platforms that correlate data from endpoints, networks, cloud services, and applications to detect sophisticated threats. XDR extends EDR capabilities across the entire IT environment for comprehensive visibility.

The inability of a system or component to perform required functions within acceptable performance parameters. Failures result from hardware malfunctions, software bugs, misconfigurations, or resource exhaustion, potentially causing service disruptions.

A security alert incorrectly flagging legitimate activity as malicious or suspicious. Excessive false positives create alert fatigue, wasting analyst time and potentially masking real threats among noise.

A network security device that filters traffic between networks based on predefined rules, blocking unauthorized access while permitting legitimate communications. Firewalls form the first line of defense in network perimeter security.

The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation governing how organizations collect, process, and protect personal data of EU residents. GDPR mandates breach notifications within 72 hours and imposes significant penalties for non-compliance.

A software deployment methodology that uses Git repositories as the single source of truth for infrastructure and application configurations. GitOps automates deployment pipelines through version-controlled changes, improving consistency and audit trails.

An individual who uses technical knowledge to gain unauthorized access to systems or manipulate technology in unintended ways. Hackers range from curious hobbyists to sophisticated criminals and state-sponsored threat actors.

A fixed-length alphanumeric string produced by applying a cryptographic algorithm to data. Hash values create unique digital fingerprints for files, enabling integrity verification by detecting any modifications to original content.

The process of converting data of any size into a fixed-length hash value using mathematical algorithms. Hashing verifies data integrity, stores passwords securely, and enables efficient data retrieval without reversing to original content.

The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act regulating how healthcare organizations protect patient information in the United States. HIPAA mandates security controls, breach notification procedures, and penalties for unauthorized disclosure of protected health data.

A comprehensive security approach that protects the entire IT environment through integrated tools and unified policies rather than isolated point solutions. Holistic strategies reduce complexity, eliminate coverage gaps, and improve threat visibility.

An IT architecture combining on-premises infrastructure, private cloud resources, and public cloud services into a unified environment. Hybrid deployments require consistent security policies across all components while adapting controls to each platform's characteristics.

Risks introduced through vulnerabilities in the information and communications technology supply chain, from hardware manufacturers to software vendors. Supply chain attacks compromise trusted products before deployment, affecting multiple organizations simultaneously.

Systems and processes that control user identities, authentication methods, and authorization levels across an organization's IT resources. IAM ensures only verified users access appropriate systems while maintaining audit trails.

The oversight of digital identities and their associated permissions within an IT environment. Identity management authenticates users, assigns access rights, and revokes privileges when roles change or employment ends.

An event that violates or threatens to violate security policies, potentially compromising information confidentiality, integrity, or availability. Incidents range from malware infections to unauthorized access attempts requiring formal response procedures.

The coordinated activities for detecting, analyzing, containing, and recovering from security incidents. Effective incident management minimizes damage, reduces recovery time, and documents lessons learned for improving future responses.

The process of restoring normal operations and repairing systems following a security incident. Recovery includes removing attacker access, rebuilding compromised systems, validating data integrity, and implementing controls to prevent recurrence.

Immediate actions taken to detect, analyze, contain, and remediate security incidents. IR teams investigate alerts, isolate affected systems, collect forensic evidence, and coordinate communications during active incidents.

Documented procedures defining roles, communication channels, and actions required during security incidents. IR plans establish decision-making authority, escalation paths, and recovery priorities before incidents occur.

Observable evidence suggesting a security incident may have occurred or is in progress. Indicators include unusual network traffic patterns, unexpected system behavior, or alerts from security tools.

Specialized computing systems controlling manufacturing processes, critical infrastructure, and physical operations. ICS security requires protecting operational technology from cyber threats while maintaining safety and production requirements.

The hardware, software, networks, and services used to process, transmit, receive, and store data. ICT encompasses everything from endpoints and servers to telecommunications infrastructure and cloud platforms.

The practice of protecting information and systems by ensuring availability, integrity, authentication, confidentiality, and non-repudiation. Information assurance combines technical controls, policies, and risk management to maintain trusted operations.

Formal rules and procedures governing how an organization protects, manages, and distributes information assets. Security policies establish acceptable use standards, access controls, and consequences for violations.

The exchange of threat intelligence, incident data, and security best practices between organizations or agencies. Information sharing improves collective defense by alerting others to emerging threats and attack techniques.

The capability to maintain essential operations under attack or adverse conditions and recover quickly afterward. Resilient systems continue functioning in degraded modes while restoring full capabilities.

The systems, infrastructure, and processes used to create, store, process, and transmit digital data. IT encompasses computers, networks, software, and support services enabling business operations.

Cloud computing model where providers rent virtualized computing resources including servers, storage, and networking on demand. IaaS eliminates physical infrastructure management while requiring customers to secure operating systems and applications.

Managing IT infrastructure through machine-readable configuration files rather than manual processes. IaC enables version control, automated deployments, and consistent environments across development, testing, and production.

Security risks posed by employees, contractors, or partners with authorized access who intentionally or accidentally compromise systems or data. Insider threats bypass perimeter defenses and require behavioral monitoring to detect.

Enterprise-wide approach coordinating risk assessment, analysis, and mitigation strategies across departments and systems. Integrated risk management provides unified visibility into threats, enabling informed resource allocation and prioritized responses.

Assurance that data and systems remain unaltered except through authorized actions. Integrity controls detect tampering, corruption, or unauthorized modifications, maintaining trust in information accuracy.

The ability of different systems, applications, or components to exchange and use information effectively. Interoperability enables integrated security tools to share threat data and coordinate automated responses.

Unauthorized access to networks or systems that bypasses security controls. Intrusions may result from exploited vulnerabilities, stolen credentials, or social engineering, requiring incident response procedures.

The monitoring and analysis of network traffic and system activity to identify security breaches or policy violations. Detection systems alert security teams to suspicious patterns requiring investigation.

Software or hardware that monitors networks and systems for malicious activity, generating alerts when suspicious behavior matches known attack signatures or anomaly patterns. IDS provides visibility but requires human analysis.

An active security control that detects and automatically blocks malicious traffic or activity in real-time. IPS extends IDS capabilities by taking defensive actions without human intervention.

International standard defining requirements for establishing, implementing, and maintaining information security management systems. ISO 27001 certification demonstrates an organization's commitment to systematic security controls and continuous improvement.

The complete technology landscape including hardware, software, networks, cloud services, and endpoints used to support business operations. Understanding your IT environment is fundamental to identifying security gaps.

The foundational technology components supporting IT services, including servers, storage, networks, and data centers. Infrastructure security protects the underlying platforms that applications and services depend on.

A framework of best practices for IT service management aligning technology services with business needs. ITIL processes include incident management, change control, and service desk operations.

The activities organizations perform to design, deliver, manage, and improve IT services. ITSM frameworks standardize incident handling, service requests, problem resolution, and change management.

Removing manufacturer-imposed software restrictions on mobile devices to install unauthorized applications or modify system settings. Jailbroken devices bypass security controls, exposing corporate networks to malware when used for business purposes.

A physical attack that floods wireless network frequencies with electromagnetic interference, preventing legitimate devices from communicating. Jamming disrupts Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular connections without requiring network access or credentials.

Practices for securing JavaScript code and preventing vulnerabilities like cross-site scripting in web applications. JavaScript security includes input validation, content security policies, and sandboxing to prevent malicious code execution.

An exploitation technique targeting web application weaknesses to execute remote JavaScript code. JBOH attacks manipulate HTTP bindings to bypass security controls and compromise client-side application logic.

The intentional modification of database field values to protect privacy while maintaining statistical accuracy for analysis. Jitter adds controlled noise to sensitive data, preventing identification of individual records.

A security authorization process requiring approval from multiple authorizing officials before granting system access. Joint authorization distributes risk and ensures appropriate oversight for high-security environments.

A pre-packed container holding essential tools, hardware, and documentation for immediate incident response deployment. Jump bags enable rapid reaction to breaches by eliminating time spent gathering equipment during emergencies.

Granting temporary, time-limited access to systems only when needed for specific tasks, then automatically revoking permissions. JIT access eliminates persistent privileges that attackers could compromise, reducing the attack surface.

An authentication protocol using symmetric encryption and time-limited tickets to verify user identity in network environments. Kerberos prevents password transmission over networks, reducing credential theft risks in Active Directory and enterprise systems.

The core component of an operating system that manages hardware resources, memory allocation, and communication between software and hardware. Kernel vulnerabilities provide attackers with system-level control, making kernel security critical.

A cryptographic value controlling encryption, decryption, digital signature creation, or signature verification operations. Key strength and proper management determine the security of encrypted data, with compromised keys exposing all protected information.

Infrastructure for generating, distributing, storing, rotating, and destroying cryptographic keys throughout their lifecycle. Effective key management prevents unauthorized decryption and ensures keys remain secure from compromise or misuse.

Mathematically linked public and private cryptographic keys where data encrypted with one key can only be decrypted with its partner. Public keys distribute freely while private keys remain secret, enabling secure communications without shared secrets.

Malicious software or hardware that secretly records keyboard input to steal passwords, credit card numbers, and sensitive information. Keyloggers bypass encryption by capturing data before it's secured, requiring endpoint protection to detect.

Security models using hierarchical classifications to control information access based on clearance levels and data sensitivity labels. Lattice techniques enforce mandatory access controls where users only access information matching their authorization level.

A tunneling protocol developed by Cisco that extends dial-up connections across networks by encapsulating PPP traffic over IP. L2F creates virtual private network connections transparent to end users.

An extension of PPTP enabling internet service providers to operate virtual private networks over public infrastructure. L2TP combines the best features of L2F and PPTP for secure remote access.

The security principle of granting users and processes only the minimum permissions required to perform their specific functions. Least privilege limits damage from compromised accounts by restricting unnecessary access to systems and data.

Scanning software designed to identify unprotected network shares and accessible resources. Legion helps both attackers discover vulnerable targets and administrators locate unsecured assets requiring protection.

A protocol for accessing and managing directory services over TCP/IP networks. LDAP provides centralized authentication, user information storage, and authorization services for applications and systems.

A routing protocol where routers maintain complete network topology information and calculate optimal paths. Link state protocols converge faster than distance-vector alternatives but require more processing power and memory.

An access control method associating specific users with permissions for each protected object. List-based controls define who can access resources through explicitly maintained permission lists.

A network connecting devices within a limited physical area like an office building or campus. LANs enable resource sharing and high-speed communication between connected systems.

Software components that extend operating system kernel functionality without requiring reboots or recompilation. LKMs provide flexibility but create security risks when attackers install malicious rootkits as kernel modules.

The selective deletion of log entries to conceal unauthorized activity or system compromises. Attackers use log clipping to hide evidence of intrusions, making forensic investigation more difficult.

The collection, storage, analysis, and retention of system logs from applications, devices, and infrastructure. Log management supports security monitoring, incident response, compliance auditing, and troubleshooting.

Malicious code that remains dormant until triggered by specific conditions like dates, events, or system states. Logic bombs execute destructive actions when activated, often used by disgruntled insiders for sabotage.

Fundamental digital circuit components performing Boolean operations with binary inputs to produce outputs. Logic gates form the building blocks of processors and digital systems.

The IP address 127.0.0.1 that always references the local host machine without transmitting traffic across networks. Loopback addresses enable testing and internal communication within a single system.

A unique hardware identifier permanently assigned to network interface cards by manufacturers. MAC addresses enable device identification on local networks, though attackers can spoof them to bypass basic access controls.

Computer algorithms that improve performance through data analysis without explicit programming for each scenario. In cybersecurity, machine learning detects anomalies and identifies threats by recognizing patterns in vast datasets.

Malicious code embedded in document macros that executes when users open infected files. Macro viruses spread through email attachments and shared documents, exploiting office application automation features.

Small programs automatically downloaded and executed in web browsers or applications that perform unauthorized actions. Malicious applets exploit browser vulnerabilities to install malware or steal data without user knowledge.

Software, firmware, or scripts intentionally designed to damage systems, steal data, or disrupt operations. Malicious code includes viruses, worms, Trojans, ransomware, and spyware that compromise confidentiality, integrity, or availability.

Companies that remotely manage clients' IT infrastructure, security, and end-user systems under subscription agreements. MSPs provide ongoing maintenance, monitoring, and support, allowing organizations to outsource technology management.

Security model where the system enforces access decisions based on classification labels assigned to users and resources. Users cannot change MAC permissions, ensuring consistent policy enforcement across the organization.

An attack where adversaries secretly intercept and potentially modify communications between two parties who believe they're communicating directly. MitM attacks compromise encryption, steal credentials, and enable eavesdropping on sensitive conversations.

An intrusion where attackers impersonate legitimate users or systems to gain unauthorized access. Masquerade attacks exploit stolen credentials or spoofed identities to bypass authentication controls.

A cryptographic hash function producing 128-bit values from input data. MD5 is now considered insecure due to collision vulnerabilities and should be replaced with stronger algorithms like SHA-256.

Probability models evaluating the likely impact of security actions within specific environments. MOE helps organizations assess whether defensive measures achieve intended protection objectives.

Network security strategy creating isolated zones within data centers and cloud environments to limit lateral movement. Microsegmentation applies granular policies restricting traffic between workloads based on Zero Trust principles.

Actions taken to reduce the likelihood or impact of security risks through implementing appropriate controls. Mitigation prioritizes threats based on risk assessments and available resources for remediation.

Software platforms managing, monitoring, and securing employee mobile devices accessing corporate resources. MDM enforces security policies, deploys applications, and enables remote data wiping for lost or stolen devices.

The widespread use of identical software, operating systems, or configurations across many systems. Monocultures amplify attack impact since vulnerabilities affecting one system compromise all similarly configured systems.

A 1988 worm program that spread across ARPANET, disrupting thousands of hosts and demonstrating the vulnerability of networked systems. The Morris Worm highlighted the need for coordinated incident response.

Security strategy continuously changing attack surfaces to increase adversary effort required for reconnaissance and exploitation. Moving target defenses randomize configurations, addresses, or system properties to complicate attacks.

Network transmission method sending data from one source to multiple specific recipients simultaneously. Multicast efficiently distributes content to groups without consuming bandwidth for individual connections.

Using multiple cloud service providers like AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud within a single architecture. Multi-cloud strategies avoid vendor lock-in but require consistent security policies across diverse platforms.

Authentication requiring two or more independent verification methods such as passwords, tokens, biometrics, or one-time codes. MFA significantly reduces credential theft risks by requiring attackers to compromise multiple factors.

Network configurations connecting directly to two or more Internet service providers. Multi-homing provides redundancy and load balancing but requires careful routing configuration to prevent security gaps.

Combining multiple signals from different sources for transmission over a single communication channel. Multiplexing increases bandwidth efficiency but requires proper segmentation to prevent cross-contamination of data streams.

The UK's National Cyber Security Centre providing technical guidance, threat intelligence, and incident response support to businesses and public sector organizations. NCSC helps organizations defend against cyber attacks and recover when breaches occur.

A 32-bit value defining which portion of an IP address represents the network and which represents individual hosts. Netmasks configure subnet boundaries, routing, and access controls within network segments.

Connected computing devices that communicate and share resources through wired or wireless infrastructure. Networks range from small local area networks to global internet connections enabling data transmission between systems.

A technique translating private IP addresses to public addresses for internet communication, hiding internal network structure. NAT conserves public IP addresses and provides basic security through address obfuscation.

Security platforms monitoring network traffic to detect and respond to threats that evade endpoint controls. NDR analyzes communication patterns, protocols, and payloads to identify lateral movement and data exfiltration.

The process of discovering and documenting all devices, connections, and services operating on a network. Network mapping creates inventory of assets, identifies unauthorized devices, and reveals potential security weaknesses.

The capability to maintain operations during disruptions, recover quickly from failures, and scale to meet unexpected demands. Resilient networks continue functioning in degraded modes while restoring full capabilities.

Processes and tools controlling network security configurations across firewalls, routers, and security devices. NSPM ensures consistent policy enforcement, automates rule changes, and maintains compliance across complex network environments.

Dividing networks into isolated subnetworks to limit lateral movement and contain breaches. Segmentation improves performance, simplifies compliance, and prevents attackers from accessing the entire network after initial compromise.

Infrastructure components enabling communication and resource sharing including routers, switches, firewalls, DNS, and DHCP. Network services require hardening and monitoring since they provide foundational connectivity attackers target.

Hardware devices connecting directly to network cables to capture and duplicate all passing traffic for monitoring. Network taps enable passive security monitoring without impacting network performance or reliability.

Intrusion detection systems monitoring network traffic for malicious activity by analyzing packets against known attack signatures and behavioral patterns. Network-based IDS provides visibility across multiple systems but cannot detect host-level compromises.

The National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education Framework defining cybersecurity work roles, skills, and competencies. NICE standardizes job requirements, helping organizations recruit qualified security professionals and develop training programs.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology providing cybersecurity frameworks, standards, and guidelines for federal agencies and private organizations. NIST's Cybersecurity Framework helps organizations manage and reduce cyber risks.

ASCII characters without visual representations, including control codes for line feeds, carriage returns, and system bells. Non-printable characters can hide malicious commands or data within seemingly innocent files.

Cryptographic proof preventing individuals from denying actions they performed, such as sending messages or approving transactions. Non-repudiation provides accountability through digital signatures and audit trails that verify authenticity.

Anonymous network connections to Windows systems that retrieve information like user accounts and shared resources without authentication. Null sessions enable reconnaissance and should be disabled to prevent information disclosure.

An open authorization standard enabling users to grant applications limited access to their accounts on other services without sharing passwords. OAuth tokens provide delegated access while maintaining credential security.

A passive system entity containing or receiving information, such as files, databases, or network resources. Objects are targets of access control policies that define which subjects can interact with them.

A sequence of eight binary bits forming a single byte of data. Octets represent the fundamental unit of digital information storage and transmission across networks and computing systems.

A temporary authentication code valid for a single login session or transaction. OTPs defeat credential theft because stolen codes become useless after expiration or use, typically within 30-60 seconds.

Irreversible cryptographic transformation converting plaintext to ciphertext that cannot be decrypted even with the encryption key. One-way encryption protects stored passwords by making original values unrecoverable.

A mathematical operation easily computed in one direction but computationally infeasible to reverse without exhaustive brute-force attempts. One-way functions form the basis of cryptographic hashing and digital signatures.

Anonymous communication technique encrypting data in multiple layers and routing through a series of network nodes. Each node removes one encryption layer, preventing any single point from knowing both source and destination.

A link-state routing protocol used within autonomous systems to calculate optimal network paths. OSPF routers maintain complete topology databases and recalculate routes quickly when network changes occur.

Controls and configurations protecting operating system confidentiality, integrity, and availability. OS security includes patch management, access controls, secure configurations, and monitoring for unauthorized modifications.

Hardware and software controlling industrial processes like manufacturing, energy production, and critical infrastructure. OT security requires protecting operational continuity while defending against cyber threats targeting physical systems.

A seven-layer reference model describing how data moves through networks from application software to physical transmission media. OSI provides standardized framework for understanding network communications and troubleshooting connectivity issues.

The seven functional layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer handles specific communication functions, enabling interoperability between different network technologies.

Verification using a separate communication channel from the primary access method, such as SMS codes sent to mobile phones during web logins. Out-of-band authentication prevents single-point compromise.

Security risks from external individuals or groups lacking authorized access to organizational assets. Outside threats include cybercriminals, hacktivists, and nation-state actors attempting unauthorized system penetration.

Exploitation technique sending more data to a buffer than it can hold, causing excess data to overwrite adjacent memory locations with malicious code. Buffer overflows enable arbitrary code execution and system compromise.

System degradation or failure resulting from excessive demand exceeding performance capabilities. Overload can result from legitimate traffic spikes, denial-of-service attacks, or insufficient resource allocation.

Wireless delivery of software, firmware, or configuration updates to mobile devices and IoT systems. OTA updates enable remote patching but require secure authentication to prevent attackers from distributing malicious updates.

An attack sending oversized ICMP echo request packets exceeding maximum size limits to crash target systems. Ping of Death exploits buffer overflow vulnerabilities in how systems handle malformed network packets.

A reconnaissance technique sending ICMP echo requests to identify active hosts on a network. Ping scans reveal which IP addresses respond, providing attackers with targets for subsequent vulnerability assessment.

An automated attack scanning ranges of IP addresses with ICMP echo requests to map active systems. Ping sweeps enable rapid network reconnaissance, identifying potential targets across entire subnets.

A data link protocol establishing direct connections between two network nodes over serial interfaces. PPP encapsulates network layer packets for transmission over phone lines, DSL, and other point-to-point connections.

A VPN protocol creating encrypted tunnels through public networks to extend private networks securely. PPTP is now considered obsolete due to known vulnerabilities and should be replaced with more secure alternatives.

A routing protocol technique advertising unreachable routes with infinite metrics to prevent routing loops. Poison reverse helps networks converge faster by explicitly communicating that certain paths are unavailable.

A database security feature maintaining multiple records with identical keys at different classification levels. Polyinstantiation prevents inference attacks by allowing different users to see different data for the same query.

Malware techniques modifying code structure while maintaining functionality to evade signature-based detection. Polymorphic malware generates unique variants with each infection, requiring behavioral analysis rather than signature matching.

A numbered endpoint identifying specific network services or applications on a host system. Ports range from 0-65535, with well-known services using standardized numbers like 80 for HTTP and 443 for HTTPS.

Monitoring and capturing network traffic to analyze data packets passing through communication channels. Packet sniffing supports legitimate troubleshooting and security analysis but enables attackers to intercept sensitive information on unsecured networks.

An intelligence-gathering assault where attackers monitor systems and intercept data without modifying resources or operations. Passive attacks eavesdrop on communications to collect information for later exploitation while remaining undetected.

A secret string of characters authenticating user identity to grant system or account access. Strong passwords combine length, complexity, and uniqueness, though multi-factor authentication provides significantly better protection.

Software that generates, stores, and automatically enters complex passwords for multiple accounts. Password managers eliminate reused credentials and weak passwords, improving security while simplifying authentication across numerous services.

An attack technique trying commonly used passwords against many accounts rather than many passwords against one account. Password spraying avoids account lockouts while exploiting weak credential hygiene across user populations.

The systematic process of identifying, acquiring, testing, and deploying software updates to address vulnerabilities and bugs. Effective patch management reduces exposure windows attackers exploit between vulnerability disclosure and remediation.

The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard mandating security controls for organizations handling credit card transactions. PCI DSS requires encryption, access controls, network segmentation, and regular security testing to protect cardholder data.

Authorized simulated attacks against systems to identify exploitable vulnerabilities before malicious actors discover them. Penetration testing uses real-world attack techniques to validate security controls and prioritize remediation efforts.

Data that identifies specific individuals either directly or through inference, including names, addresses, social security numbers, and biometrics. PII requires protection to prevent identity theft and comply with privacy regulations.

An attack redirecting users from legitimate websites to malicious copies by corrupting DNS records or modifying local host files. Pharming enables credential theft and malware distribution without requiring user interaction.

Social engineering attacks using fraudulent communications impersonating trusted entities to trick recipients into revealing credentials, financial information, or installing malware. Phishing remains the most common initial attack vector.

Canada's Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act governing how private sector organizations collect, use, and disclose personal information. PIPEDA requires consent, transparency, and accountability for data handling practices.

Unencrypted data readable without decryption keys or special processing. Plaintext represents information before encryption or after decryption, vulnerable to interception when transmitted or stored without protection.

Cloud computing model providing development platforms with infrastructure, runtime environments, and tools managed by providers. PaaS enables application deployment without managing underlying servers, though security remains a shared responsibility.

Individual security tools addressing specific threats or functions rather than comprehensive protection. Point solutions create management complexity and coverage gaps when layered without integration or unified visibility.

Individual security tools addressing specific threats or functions rather than comprehensive protection. Point solutions create management complexity and coverage gaps when layered without integration or unified visibility.

Systematically probing network ports to identify open services and potential vulnerabilities. Administrators use port scanning for security audits while attackers use it for reconnaissance before exploitation attempts.

Observable indicators suggesting an attacker may be preparing to launch an incident. Precursors include reconnaissance activities, vulnerability scanning, and social engineering attempts preceding actual attacks.

Activities building capabilities to prevent, detect, respond to, and recover from security incidents. Preparedness includes developing response plans, training teams, maintaining backup systems, and establishing communication procedures.

Protection of personal information from unauthorized access and ensuring individuals control how their data is collected, used, and shared. Privacy requirements vary by jurisdiction but increasingly mandate transparency and consent.

The secret component of an asymmetric cryptographic key pair that must remain confidential to the owner. Private keys decrypt messages encrypted with corresponding public keys and create digital signatures.

The freely distributable component of an asymmetric cryptographic key pair that can be widely published. Public keys encrypt messages only the corresponding private key can decrypt and verify digital signatures.

Cryptographic systems using mathematically linked key pairs where public keys encrypt data that private keys decrypt. Public key cryptography enables secure communication without prior shared secrets.

Framework of policies, procedures, and technologies for managing digital certificates and public-private key pairs. PKI enables encrypted communications, digital signatures, and authentication across potentially untrusted networks.

A network worm that spreads through infected systems and exploits weak passwords to propagate. QAZ demonstrates how malware leverages credential vulnerabilities to move laterally across networks.

Formalized documentation of processes and procedures ensuring managed service providers consistently meet client requirements and regulatory standards. QMS frameworks support continuous improvement and accountability in service delivery.

Network management technologies prioritizing specific traffic types like VoIP or video conferencing to maintain performance during congestion. QoS policies allocate bandwidth based on business requirements, ensuring critical applications remain responsive.

Computing technology using quantum mechanics principles to perform calculations exponentially faster than traditional computers. Quantum computing threatens current encryption standards while potentially enabling new cryptographic methods resistant to conventional attacks.

Encryption techniques leveraging quantum mechanics principles like quantum key distribution to create theoretically unbreakable secure communication channels. Quantum cryptography detects eavesdropping attempts through quantum state changes, ensuring message confidentiality.

Isolating infected files, compromised systems, or suspicious activities from production networks to prevent malware spread. Quarantine contains threats while allowing security teams to investigate and remediate without risking additional systems.

Strategic meetings between managed service providers and clients held every three months to review performance metrics, security posture, and plan future investments. QBRs ensure alignment between technology services and business objectives.

A structured request for specific information from databases, search engines, or security information systems. Security analysts use queries to retrieve logs, filter events, and correlate data during threat hunting investigations.

Systematic organization of incoming support tickets, network packets, or data processing requests to ensure efficient handling based on priority and arrival time. Effective queue management prevents backlog and maintains service levels.

Practices for verifying QR codes before scanning to prevent "quishing" attacks redirecting users to malicious websites. QR code security requires user awareness since codes hide destination URLs.

Social engineering tactic where attackers promise benefits or services in exchange for sensitive information or access credentials. Quid pro quo exploits reciprocity by offering fake technical support or rewards to manipulate victims.

Malware that encrypts victim files and demands payment for decryption keys. Ransomware attacks disrupt operations, threaten data loss, and increasingly include data theft with extortion threats to publish stolen information publicly.

Activities restoring essential services after incidents, progressing from immediate operational restoration to full capability recovery. Recovery includes data restoration, system rebuilding, and implementing controls to prevent recurrence of similar incidents.

Security professionals authorized to simulate adversary tactics against an organization's defenses. Red teams test detection capabilities, response procedures, and security controls by conducting realistic attacks under controlled conditions.

Simulated attacks replicating real-world conditions to test an organization's security posture. Red team exercises identify gaps in detection, response capabilities, and defensive controls through adversarial emulation.

Duplicate systems, processes, or components maintaining functionality when primary resources fail. Redundancy prevents single points of failure, ensuring business continuity during hardware failures, cyber attacks, or natural disasters.

The capability to withstand disruptions, adapt to changing conditions, and rapidly recover operations after incidents. Resilient organizations maintain essential functions during attacks while implementing improvements to strengthen future defenses.

Immediate actions addressing security incidents, including containment, investigation, and short-term recovery activities. Response encompasses automated system reactions and manual analyst interventions to minimize damage and restore normal operations.

The potential for adverse outcomes when threats exploit vulnerabilities, measured by likelihood and impact. Risk assessment guides security investment decisions by quantifying potential losses and prioritizing mitigation efforts.

Systematic examination of threat scenarios, vulnerabilities, and potential consequences to understand security exposure. Risk analysis evaluates how policy changes, configuration modifications, or new technologies affect overall security posture.

The process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to inform security decisions and resource allocation. Assessment determines vulnerability severity, exploitation likelihood, and potential business impact to guide mitigation strategies.

Structured approach applying security controls proportional to data sensitivity and value. Risk-based management balances protection costs against potential losses, ensuring critical information receives appropriate safeguards while avoiding unnecessary restrictions.

The continuous process of identifying, analyzing, mitigating, and monitoring risks throughout their lifecycle. Risk management includes conducting assessments, implementing controls, tracking effectiveness, and documenting decisions for compliance and accountability.

Malicious software with system-level privileges designed to hide its presence and maintain persistent access. Rootkits conceal malware, intercept system calls, and subvert security tools, requiring specialized detection methods to identify.

A defined policy statement specifying allowed or prohibited actions, communications, or system states. Rules automate security policy enforcement through firewall configurations, access controls, and application behavior restrictions.

A cryptographic key used for both encryption and decryption in symmetric encryption systems. Secret keys must remain confidential to both parties, as compromise exposes all protected communications and data.

A cybersecurity framework category focused on designing, developing, and building secure information systems. Secure provisioning integrates security controls throughout development lifecycles rather than adding them after deployment.

Managing security controls as code within DevOps processes and CI/CD pipelines. Security as code enforces policies programmatically in cloud-native environments, ensuring consistent security configurations across automated deployments.

Using technology to execute security processes without manual intervention, including incident response, policy enforcement, and threat detection. Automation reduces response times, eliminates human error, and enables security teams to focus on complex threats.

Formal rules governing acceptable use of information assets and defining required security controls. Security policies establish organizational security posture, compliance requirements, and consequences for violations while guiding technology implementations.

Strategic oversight of an organization's information security program, including policy development, resource allocation, risk management, and incident planning. Security program management aligns technical controls with business objectives and regulatory requirements.

Security Information and Event Management systems aggregating logs from multiple sources for correlation, analysis, and alerting. SIEM platforms provide centralized visibility but require significant tuning and analyst expertise to be effective.

Distinctive patterns identifying specific threats, files, or behaviors used by security tools for detection. Signature-based detection effectively identifies known threats but fails against zero-day attacks and polymorphic malware.

Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response platforms integrating security tools and automating incident response workflows. SOAR systems coordinate actions across multiple tools, reducing manual tasks and accelerating threat containment.

Security Operations Centers serving as centralized hubs for monitoring, detecting, analyzing, and responding to security incidents. SOCs combine people, processes, and technology to maintain continuous threat vigilance.

Psychological manipulation tactics deceiving individuals into divulging confidential information or performing actions compromising security. Social engineering exploits human trust rather than technical vulnerabilities, making awareness training critical for defense.

Confidence that software operates as intended without vulnerabilities introduced during development or deployment. Software assurance encompasses secure coding practices, testing, verification, and supply chain security throughout software lifecycles.

Development practices integrating security controls, testing, and validation throughout software creation. Security engineering applies threat modeling, code review, and vulnerability testing to prevent flaws before production deployment.

Unsolicited bulk messages sent indiscriminately through email, messaging, or other electronic communications. Spam consumes bandwidth, enables phishing attacks, and delivers malware while overwhelming legitimate communications.

Unauthorized disclosure or transfer of classified or sensitive information to uncleared systems or personnel. Spillage incidents require immediate containment, investigation, and remediation to prevent further exposure.

Falsifying source identities in communications to impersonate trusted entities and bypass security controls. Spoofing attacks include email address forgery, IP address manipulation, and caller ID falsification for social engineering.

Malicious software secretly installed on systems to monitor user activity, collect sensitive information, or track behaviors without consent. Spyware compromises privacy and can enable identity theft or corporate espionage.

The combination of technologies, tools, and platforms an organization uses to deliver services or protect systems. Security stacks often include multiple point solutions requiring integration for comprehensive protection.

Industrial control systems managing geographically dispersed infrastructure like power grids, water treatment, and manufacturing processes. SCADA security requires protecting operational technology from cyber threats while maintaining safety and reliability.

The network of organizations, processes, and resources involved in creating and delivering products or services from suppliers to customers. Supply chain security addresses risks from compromised vendors, components, or software dependencies.

Identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks introduced through vendor relationships, third-party software, and hardware components. Supply chain risk management addresses threats from compromised suppliers, counterfeit components, and malicious insertions.

Encryption methods using identical keys for both encryption and decryption operations. Symmetric algorithms like AES provide fast encryption but require secure key distribution mechanisms since key compromise exposes all protected data.

A cryptographic key performing both encryption and decryption in symmetric encryption systems. Symmetric keys require secure exchange between parties and must be rotated regularly to maintain security.

Managing and maintaining servers, networks, and IT infrastructure to ensure availability, performance, and security. System administrators configure access controls, apply patches, monitor systems, and respond to technical issues.

Assurance that systems function as intended without unauthorized manipulation or corruption. System integrity controls detect tampering, verify configurations, and ensure systems remain trustworthy throughout their operational lifecycle.

The process of designing, creating, testing, and deploying information systems throughout their lifecycle. Secure systems development integrates security requirements from initial design through implementation and maintenance.

Translating business needs into technical specifications and system designs. Requirements planning ensures security controls address organizational risks while supporting operational objectives and compliance mandates.

Evaluating system security through testing, integration assessment, and ongoing monitoring. Security analysis identifies vulnerabilities, validates controls, and ensures systems maintain appropriate protection throughout their lifecycle.

Designing secure system structures that address security requirements while supporting business functionality. Security architecture defines how components interact, where controls apply, and how threats are mitigated.

Discussion-based security drills where teams review response procedures for hypothetical incident scenarios. Tabletop exercises test plan effectiveness, identify gaps, and improve coordination without deploying technical resources or disrupting operations.

Cyberspace environments that dynamically adjust security controls based on user context, threat levels, and risk conditions. Adaptive security mechanisms automatically increase protection when suspicious activity is detected.

Any circumstance, event, or actor with potential to exploit vulnerabilities and cause harm to systems, data, operations, or individuals. Threats include natural disasters, human error, malicious attacks, and system failures.

Individuals, groups, organizations, or governments conducting or planning malicious activities against information systems. Threat actors range from script kiddies to sophisticated nation-state operations with varying motivations and capabilities.

Identifying and assessing adversary capabilities, tactics, and objectives to support security operations and investigations. Threat analysis combines intelligence gathering with behavioral assessment to predict and counter malicious activities.

The systematic evaluation of potential threats to determine their likelihood and impact on organizational operations. Assessment prioritizes threats based on risk severity, enabling appropriate resource allocation for mitigation.

All potential entry points and vulnerabilities attackers could exploit to compromise systems or data. Reducing threat surface involves eliminating unnecessary services, closing ports, removing unused applications, and limiting access.

An authentication credential combining identity verification data with temporary encryption keys to establish trusted sessions. Tickets enable single sign-on and secure service access without repeatedly entering credentials.

A color-coded system (RED, AMBER, GREEN, WHITE) designating information sharing restrictions to ensure sensitive data reaches only authorized audiences. Protocol colors indicate whether information can be shared publicly or remains confidential.

Malicious software disguised as legitimate applications that performs hidden harmful functions while appearing useful. Trojans bypass security by exploiting user trust, often delivering additional malware or creating backdoors.

Integrated communication platforms combining voice, video conferencing, instant messaging, and collaboration tools into single systems. Unified communications improve productivity but require security controls protecting against eavesdropping and unauthorized access.

Centralized platforms managing and securing all endpoint devices including laptops, smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices. UEM consolidates mobile device management, application deployment, and security policy enforcement across diverse device types.

All-in-one security appliances combining multiple security functions like firewall, antivirus, intrusion prevention, and content filtering. UTM simplifies management for smaller organizations but creates single points of failure.

Automated security solutions including CCTV cameras, motion sensors, and alarm systems operating without on-site personnel. Unmanned systems provide continuous monitoring but require remote management and regular maintenance.

Periodic audits verifying users maintain appropriate access rights aligned with current roles and responsibilities. Access reviews identify orphaned accounts, excessive permissions, and policy violations requiring remediation.

Specific permissions granted to users defining which systems, data, and functions they can access. Access rights follow least privilege principles, limiting permissions to only those required for job functions.

Security education programs teaching employees to recognize phishing, social engineering, and other threats. Awareness training reduces human error by building security-conscious cultures and improving threat reporting.

Processes for creating, modifying, and removing user accounts and access rights during onboarding, role changes, and offboarding. Automated provisioning ensures consistent access controls while deprovisioning prevents unauthorized access.

Systematic tracking of changes to code, configurations, and documents with complete modification history. Version control enables rollback to previous states, supports collaboration, and maintains audit trails for compliance and troubleshooting.

External security executives providing strategic cybersecurity leadership on a part-time or consulting basis. Virtual CISOs deliver executive-level guidance for organizations unable to hire full-time security leadership.

Self-replicating malicious code that spreads by modifying other programs or files without user knowledge or consent. Viruses require host files to propagate, distinguishing them from worms that spread independently.

A legal basis under GDPR permitting data processing necessary to protect someone's life or physical health. Vital interests justify emergency processing when obtaining consent is impossible.

Weaknesses in systems, applications, configurations, or processes that threats can exploit to compromise security. Vulnerabilities result from design flaws, coding errors, misconfigurations, or outdated software lacking security patches.

Systematic identification and evaluation of security weaknesses in systems, networks, and applications. Assessments discover vulnerabilities, assess severity, and prioritize remediation based on exploitation risk and potential impact.

Continuous processes for discovering, analyzing, prioritizing, and remediating security vulnerabilities across IT environments. Effective vulnerability management reduces attack surface by addressing weaknesses before exploitation occurs.

The ongoing cycle of identifying, evaluating, treating, and reporting security vulnerabilities. Vulnerability management programs balance remediation urgency against operational impact while tracking metrics to measure security improvement.

Automated tools detecting known weaknesses by comparing system configurations and software versions against vulnerability databases. Regular scanning identifies missing patches, misconfigurations, and exploitable flaws requiring remediation.

Imperfections in software code, design, architecture, or deployment that could become exploitable vulnerabilities under certain conditions. Weaknesses represent potential security flaws requiring evaluation to determine if remediation is necessary.

Neutral facilitators overseeing security exercises between red teams (attackers) and blue teams (defenders). White teams establish rules of engagement, monitor activities, evaluate performance, and document findings.

A list of approved entities such as IP addresses, email addresses, applications, or domains explicitly permitted to access systems or bypass security controls. Whitelisting blocks everything by default except approved items, providing strong security but requiring careful maintenance to avoid blocking legitimate traffic. Modern terminology favors "allow list" over "whitelist."

The estimated effort, time, and resources an adversary requires to overcome a security control. Work factor calculations guide security investment by ensuring controls impose costs exceeding potential gains.

Self-replicating malware that propagates independently across networks without requiring host files or user interaction. Worms exploit network vulnerabilities to spread automatically, consuming bandwidth and system resources while potentially delivering additional malicious payloads.

An HTTP header field identifying the original client IP address when requests pass through proxies or load balancers. XFF enables accurate logging and security analysis by revealing true source addresses.

Security platforms correlating threat data from endpoints, networks, cloud services, email, and applications for comprehensive threat detection. XDR extends EDR capabilities across entire IT environments, improving visibility and enabling coordinated responses to sophisticated attacks.

A high-performance journaling filesystem for Linux systems supporting large files and volumes. XFS appears in server logs, backup operations, and recovery procedures, requiring proper monitoring and maintenance.

Web application vulnerabilities allowing attackers to inject malicious scripts into pages viewed by other users. XSS attacks steal session cookies, capture credentials, and perform actions on behalf of victims.

An Ethernet operations, administration, and maintenance standard for measuring network performance including latency, packet loss, and jitter. Y.1731 enables service-level agreement monitoring in carrier and enterprise networks.

A network architecture pattern where connections branch from central points in a Y-shaped configuration. Y-topologies appear in physical layouts and logical network diagrams.

A human-readable data serialization format commonly used for configuration files in DevOps and cloud environments. Kubernetes, Docker, and CI/CD pipelines use YAML to define infrastructure and application settings.

A data modeling language defining network device configurations and operational state for automated management. YANG enables programmatic network control through NETCONF and RESTCONF protocols.

A pattern-matching tool creating rules to identify and classify malware samples. Security teams use YARA rules for threat hunting, incident response, and automated malware detection.

A hardware authentication device providing strong multi-factor authentication through FIDO2, U2F, and one-time password protocols. YubiKeys resist phishing and credential theft by requiring physical possession.

A security model assuming no user, device, or network is inherently trustworthy regardless of location. Zero Trust requires continuous verification of identity, device health, and context before granting access to applications and data.

The comprehensive framework implementing Zero Trust principles across an organization's IT infrastructure. ZTA defines how identity verification, micro-segmentation, least privilege access, and continuous monitoring combine to eliminate implicit trust.

Access control solutions verifying user identity and device posture before granting application access. ZTNA replaces traditional VPNs by providing direct-to-application connections based on identity rather than network location.

Previously unknown software vulnerabilities with no available patches or fixes. Zero-day exploits are particularly dangerous because defenders lack protection until vendors develop and distribute security updates.

Firewall configurations organizing networks into security zones with policies controlling traffic between zones rather than individual IP addresses. Zone-based approaches simplify rule management while enforcing consistent security boundaries.

A text file containing DNS records mapping domain names to IP addresses and defining mail servers, name servers, and other DNS information. Zone files enable domain name resolution across the internet.

Dividing networks into isolated security zones based on trust levels, functions, or data sensitivity such as user networks, servers, operational technology, and guest access. Zoning contains breaches by preventing lateral movement between zones.